The Middle East has long been vital to British imperialism, first as a route linking Europe to India and Asia, then later as a crucial source of oil. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, Britain’s interest in the region was shaped by imperial rivalry, particularly with France. The defeat of Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt and Syria (1798–1801) demonstrated Britain’s growing military strength, supported by its emergence as the world’s first industrial power. This strength, built on global trade networks, the Atlantic slave trade, and wealth extracted from colonies such as India, enabled Britain to expand its influence into new regions.
From the early nineteenth century, Britain established a more perma-nent presence in the Middle East. The 1809 Preliminary Treaty marked the beginning of British involvement in Persia (modern Iran), by providing training for the country’s first professional army. Britain also expanded its presence along the Arabian Peninsula by signing the General Treaty of 1820 with the Gulf states and occupying Aden in 1839. Further expansion included Cyprus in 1878 and Egypt in 1882. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 made the region even more important by halving the distance between Britain and India. These strategic positions allowed Britain to secure key trade routes and maintain its global empire.
The 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement between Britain and France carved up the region into the modern Middle East. Britain controlled a vast imperial network in the region, including both formal colonies and an ‘informal empire’. While some territories, such as Palestine, were directly ruled, others such as Iraq, Jordan, and Egypt, remained officially independent but were indirectly controlled through treaties, military presence, and economic control.
The Middle East region grew ever more important after the discovery of vast oil reserves. Iran became particularly important for Britain. In 1903, the British navy’s decision to switch from coal to oil made control of petroleum essential. The creation of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC) in 1909, and the development of the Abadan refinery by 1913, made Iran central to Britain’s energy security. In 1914, the British government took a controlling stake in the APOC, ensuring a steady oil supply for the navy. Control over Iranian oil became a key objective of British policy. Despite the wealth generated, Iran benefited very little, in some years the Iranian state’s share of net profits were around 12% while Britain pocketed the rest.
After the Second World War, Britain’s power began to decline as the US emerged as the dominant global hegemonic force. At the same time, nationalist movements rose across the Middle East. In Iran, the masses forced Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh to nation-alise the oil industry in 1951.
In response, Britain imposed a global embargo on Iranian oil. When this failed, Britain worked with the US to overthrow Mossadegh. In 1953, the CIA-led coup, known as Operation Ajax, removed the democratically elected prime minister and strengthened the rule of the pro-imperialist Shah. Through-out the Cold War, Britain and the US made similar interventions in countries such as Jordan, Lebanon, Oman, Kuwait, and Bahrain and propped up pro-imperialist regimes in the region.
Today Britain maintains military bases in Oman, Qatar, the UAE and Cyprus, and plays an active role in the destabilisation of Middle Eastern countries to secure its access to resources. Iraq has still not recovered from its invasion by a Labour-led government; Sudan is dealing with the world’s largest displacement crisis as a result of a war fuelled by the UAE who use British weapons; since 2015 Britain has backed the Saudi bombing of Yemen; and Britain finances and supports the Zionist state in its ethnic cleansing of the Palestinians. Far from being a closed historical chapter, British imperialism is still shaping the region today.
